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rfz is seen a fair bit in the music of Elgar. The difference between rfz and sfz is that sfz is a more percussive hit. rfz was once described to me as like squeezing toothpaste out of a tube - it is played with much less attack than sfz, though equally strongly. (Of course, on percussive instruments like the piano you cannot make the distinction.)
The most simple, basic definition of tonality is the relationship between pitches. All music, with the exception of atonal, twelve tone and perhaps polytonal music display some degree of tonality. Medieval music has tonal center and often resolves on the parent tone of a given mode, what was referred to as the final.
8. Overtones are harmonics, or upper partials; extra notes which sound when a fundamental note is played. The words are almost synonymous, but not exactly. When a string is played, or a note blown, the loudest sound we usually hear is the fundamental - the one we would sing back, or use to identify what the note is.
Especially in classical music the "upbeat" refers to what the conductor is doing. Here's a diagram of the conductor's hand motions for 4/4 time, with the upbeat highlighted: On the beat preceding the first beat of each measure (the downbeat, labeled with a 1), the conductor raises his hand/baton to prepare for it; the upbeat (labeled 4 here).
Reading books on orchestration is like trying to learn a language by reading a dictionary. Reading scores and listening to good recordings is probably the second best way to learn - especially if you enter the music into a notation program and compare the playback you get with the live version. For the specifics in your question:
7. Ritardando and rallentando both mean gradually getting slower and according to my AB guide to music theory book they are both supposed to imply a gradual slowing down. And allargando means broadening, implying getting a little slower and probably also a little louder. Without a doubt execution sometimes changes in some cases, since words can ...
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Progression #1: C-F-G-F-C. NOTE: This 4 bar progression resolves back to C after the final time it's played on the play along CD. Dictionary.com gives this definition for "resolve" as used in music: Resolve: [Music] to progress from a dissonance to a consonance. But the problem is that I don't here any dissonance on the above progression.
It gets more complicated. The term 'refrain' comes from a time when poems were routinely set to music, and it is more appropriately left for the discussion of Classical and Romantic songs. At the turn of the nineteenth century, a popular or 'parlour' song was likely to have a verse and a chorus (or according to some old sheet music, the refrain).
22. Arco (which is not an abbreviation) means to return to bowing after pizzicato (abbreviated pizz.) or col legno. Pizzicato means you pluck the strings with your fingers instead of using the bow, col legno using the wooden backside of the bow instead of the hairs. Ten. is short for tenuto which means holding.